If you order your cheap custom papers from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on smoking ads good or bad. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality smoking ads good or bad paper right on time.

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Advertising in general is a scam. Do not get me wrong, it is a key in any business to succeed but they blandly target young kids, play the sex card, or make it seem like the cool thing to do. Some ads are alright. I don't mind the ads in news papers or in journals. The ones that make you think twice are the cigarette ads. I hate those. They show people what is cool and what is not. It was worse a few years ago when they had a cartoon camel pitching ciggs to kids. That's the system we live in.

The ad in question is a Camel ad in the June 00 issue of Maxim men magazine. It is a classy enough ads but I don't like the way the guy looks. He looks like Humphrey Bogart with a Camel hanging out of his mouth with this you wish you were me look on him with a touch of yeah I am a bad ass. The setting is in a bar with a background straight out of the movie Casablanca. The only thing that is missing is a girl ready to give it up to him as soon as he lights it up. These ads have no regard for the people that read them or take them seriously. They have no ethics or morals.

At face value, the ad appears to have no moral quarrel. It is a bar keep about to light up a cancer stick. My problem is the look on his face is so inviting, that this is the best thing in the world to do. It is almost a look of satisfaction. It really does not look natural or real for that matter.

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Realism in this ad could mean many things. First is anyone looking forward to that next cigarette that badly? Is "pleasure to burn" the best slogan that they could have come up with? To me the ad is not that appealing because it is a guy. He is attractive but I don't swing that way. If it were a lady I probably would not have been that bad with the slogan pleasure to burn. This ad is aimed at the 5 and up female crowd. Here is why; firstly it is a male lighting a cigarette; secondly he is attractive; and thirdly he seems like he is in his late twenties, earlier thirties.

The only emotion that I feel is my anger at the cigarette companies for pulling this off. They could have just put a box of them on a table and said buy Camel Lights. It would have had the same affect on me either way, especially with this ad. I can only tell you how I would feel, not how others would.

I say again that cigarette ads are bad. I wish the people making them would realize this but I know that as long as there is money to be made people will keep making them to earn more.

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EBITDA

Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization. An approximate measure of a companys operating cash flow based on data from the companys income statement. Calculated by looking at earnings before the deduction of interest expenses, taxes, depreciation, and amortization. This earnings measure is of particular interest in cases where companies have large amounts of fixed assets which are subject to heavy depreciation charges (such as manufacturing companies) or in the case where a company has a large amount of acquired intangible assets on its books and is thus subject to large amortization charges (such as a company that has purchased a brand or a company that has recently made a large acquisition). Since the distortionary accounting and financing effects on company earnings do not factor into EBITDA, it is a good way of comparing companies within and across industries. This measure is also of interest to a companys creditors, since EBITDA is essentially the income that a company has free for interest payments. In general, EBITDA is a useful measure only for large companies with significant assets, and/or for companies with a significant amount of debt financing. It is rarely a useful measure for evaluating a small company with no significant loans. Sometimes also called operational cash flow.

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Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization - EBITDA

An indicator of a companys financial performance calculated as

= Revenue - Expenses (excluding tax, interest, depreciation, and amortization)

EBITDA can be used to analyze the profitability between companies and industries, because it eliminates the effects of financing and accounting decisions.

A common misconception is that EBITDA represents cash earnings. EBITDA is good metric to evaluate profitability, but not cash flow.

EBITDA first came into common use with leveraged buyouts in the 80s, where it was used to indicate the ability of a company to service debt. As time passed, it became popular in industries with expensive assets that had to be written down over long periods of time. Lately, EBITDA is commonly quoted by many industries, especially technology, even when it isnt warranted. Consequently, EBITDA is frequently being used as an accounting gimmick to dress up a companys earnings.

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EBITDA The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly

EBITDA is one of those terms that is getting increased usage but usually for the wrong reason. This article will define it and discuss how it can be useful but also misleading.

EBITDA is an abbreviation for earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization. It is calculated by taking operating income and adding back to it interest, depreciation and amortization expenses. EBITDA is used to analyze a companys operating profitability before non-operating expenses (such as interest and other non-core expenses) and non-cash charges (depreciation and amortization).

The Good

EBITDA can be used to analyze the profitability between companies and industries. Because it eliminates the effects of financing and accounting decisions, EBITDA can provide a relatively good apples-to-apples comparison. For example, EBITDA as a percent of sales (the higher the ratio, the higher the profitability) can be used to find companies that are the most efficient operators in an industry.

The ratio can also be used to evaluate different industry trends over time. Because it removes the impact of financing large capital investments and depreciation from the analysis, EBITDA can be used to compare the profitability trends of, say, heavy industries (like automobile manufacturers) to hi-tech companies.

The new accounting rules that eliminate the amortization of goodwill, formally know as FAS 14, will bring operating income closer to EBITDA, but EBITDA will continue to be a better measure of core operating profitability.

The Bad

EBITDA is good metric to evaluate profitability but not cash flow. Unfortunately, however, EBITDA is often used as a measure of cash flow, which is a very dangerous and misleading thing to do because there is a significant difference between the two.

Operating cash flow is a better measure of how much cash a company is generating because it adds non-cash charges (depreciation and amortization) back to net income and includes the changes in working capital that also use/provide cash (such as changes in receivables, payables and inventories). These working capital factors are the key to determining how much cash a company is generating. If investors do not include changes in working capital in their analysis and rely solely on EBITDA, they will miss clues that indicate whether or not a company is losing money because it cannot sell its products!

The Ugly

It gets ugly when EBITDA is used as a key measure for making investment decisions. Because it is easier to calculate, EBITDA is often used as a headline metric in discussing a companys results. This, however, could, as discussed above, misrepresent the true investment potential of a company because it does not accurately reflect a firms ability to generate cash.

DEFINATION OF TERMS

1. Corporate Tax

A levy placed on the profit of a firm; different rates are used for different levels of profits.

. Depreciation

1. An expense recorded to reduce the value of a long-term tangible asset. Since it is a non-cash expense, it increases free cash flow while decreasing the amount of a companys reported earnings.

. A decrease in the value of a particular currency relative to other currencies.

. Amortization

The paying off of debt in regular installments over a period of time.

The deduction of capital expenses over a specific period of time. Similar to depreciation, it is a method of measuring the consumption of the value of long-term assets like equipment or buildings.

Think of this as claiming the decrease in value on your car every year. If you bought your car new for $0,000 and after the first year it is worth $17,000 theoretically you could amortize the $,000 for tax and financial purposes.

4. FAS � 14 New Accounting Rules Could Roil the Markets

Financial Accounting Standards Board - (FASB)

Designated as the organization for establishing standards of financial accounting and reporting. FASB standards govern the preparation of financial reports and are recognized by the SEC.

Accounting standards are crucial in an efficient market, as information must be transparent, credible, and understandable. The FASB sets out to improve accounting practices by enhancing guidelines set out for accounting reports, identifying and resolving issues in a timely manner, and creating a uniform standard across the financial markets.

FAS � 14 is the new accounting rule that changes the way companies treat goodwill, and, to avoid making bad investment decisions, investors MUST be aware of its impact on reported earnings. This accounting rule change will impact earnings two main ways, both of which could give uninformed investors a wrong signal

1. The change will generate a one-time boost to EPS that could fool the market into thinking it represents a change in the fundamentals.

. The new rules also provide an incentive to write-off goodwill during the next few quarters, which will further depress weak earnings.

Previously, companies were required to amortize goodwill over a long time (40 years), and this non-cash expense reduced reported (GAAP) EPS. FAS 14 eliminates amortization and instituted an annual impairment test. This article will briefly review the potential impact of these changes on reported earnings. We expect the changes to start impacting earnings by the end of this year.

EPS Impact A Potential False Positive

The new accounting change will provide a one-time boost to a companys EPS, which may be misinterpreted by the market as an improvement in the long-term earnings potential of the company, causing the market to move the stock higher. There is also the possibility that the market may react like it does when a company announces a stock split, bidding the shares higher although no change occurs in the fundamental earning power of the company. One Wall Street analyst recently estimated that this change could boost software firms EPS by 114%.

In reality, however, a companys fundamentals, real earnings potential, and cash flows remain unchanged regardless of the new rules. FAS 14 can be viewed as a rule change that occurs in the middle of the game. But because companies are not required to restate historical results, the change will potentially result in significant EPS growth in the first quarter after adoption of the rule. During the next three quarters, while EPS growth will be exaggerated when it is compared to the same quarter of the prior year, sequential EPS growth will fall back to lower (normal) levels.

After the dismal earnings reported in this year, this sudden acceleration of EPS growth may generate a knee-jerk reaction in the market, causing these shares to rise. Under this scenario, uninformed investors may get caught up in the excitement and could lose money as they chase what they think is strong earnings growth.

Ironically, the companies that may experience the greatest EPS growth from this change are the old dotcom darlings. Internet and telco companies whose earnings have evaporated (did they ever exist?) could post significant EPS growth as they eliminate the amortization of the huge amounts of goodwill they accumulated during the heady times when all-stock mergers were done at outrageous multiples. Hopefully these companies will resist the temptation to use this as an opportunity to generate renewed interest in their tired shares. (Not!)

5. Cash Flow

The amount of cash a company generates and uses during a period, calculated by adding noncash charges (such as depreciation) to the net income after taxes. Cash Flow can be used as an indication of a companys financial strength.

It is also sometimes referred to as the money value of trades in a stock during a trading day.

Cash flow is crucial to companies, having ample cash on hand will ensure that creditors, employees, and others can be paid on time.

EBITDA

Definition EBITDA is an abbreviation for Earnings before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization. It reports what the company would have earned during the period if it did not have to pay interest on its debt; didnt have to pay taxes; and had depreciated the full value of all assets at their acquisition.

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It is roughly equivalent to the Operating Income line in the Income Statements.

Also Known As Earnings before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization

Earnings before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization - EBITDA

Earnings Before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization - EBITDA

EBITDA tells an investor how much money a company would have made if it didn't have to pay interest on its debt, taxes, or take depreciation and amortization charges. EBITDA is intended to be an indicator of a company's financial performance, not free cash flow as many investor incorrectly assume, originally coming into existence in the 180's during the leveraged-buyout frenzy that epitomized the era of greed. The measurement has become so popular that many companies will boast charts and graphs of their increased EBITDA within the first five pages of their annual report. Investors, thinking this is wonderful, get excited about the business because it appears to be growing in leaps and bounds.

In its brilliance, Wall Street regrettably forgot one part of the equation common sense. Companies do have to pay interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization. Treating these expenses like they don't exist is the same mentality of the five year old who believes no one can see them when their eyes are closed � while they may enjoy pretending for a while, the IRS and the banks and bondholders who lent money to the company aren't interested in playing games. When the bills come due, these entities want the money owed to them and can force bankruptcy if they aren't paid.

Still not convinced? Picture this scenario

A single man in his mid-twenties, earning $0,000 annually, walks into his local bank to get a loan for a new, top-of-the-line BMW. Each year, he pays $8,100 in taxes, reducing his monthly check from $,500 to $185 [for simplicity sake, lets ignore payroll deductions, etc.] He currently has a mortgage payment of $1,100 per month, and a student loan payment of $00 per month. After paying all of these expenses, he has $55 on which to live.

The loan officer crunches the numbers and comes up with an estimated monthly payment of $750 for the car. The man pulls out his pen to sign the papers. The loan offer looks in confusion after reviewing his information. "Sir," she says, "you only make $55 a month after payments and taxes! You can't afford this loan. Not only can you not afford the payment, you will then have nothing to live on." The man looks confused, "but I make $,500 per month before my payments and taxes."

See the fallacy? The gentlemen in our example may ignore the loans, but his creditors surely aren't. In fact, the officer would probably laugh at him. Sadly, this is exactly what corporations are doing by presenting their EBITDA numbers to investors.

The truth is, in virtually all cases, EBITDA is absolutely, entirely, and utterly useless. It is simply a way for companies that can't make money to dress-up their failures by reporting increased something to investors. When the traditional metric of profit couldn't be attained, they created a new one that made them appear successful.

In the accounting and business world, EBITDA is a firestorm of controversy. There are some who will defend it vehemently, and attempt to ridicule you for even suggesting it isn't worth the time it takes to pronounce the letters. Often, these people will appear to be very intelligent, driven, and professional. Don't worry about it � four hundred years ago, the brightest men on earth thought the world was flat. Smile and say a prayer of thanks because it's folly such as this that presents us with opportunity to profit in the market.

EBITDA Still relevant in the wake of WorldCom?

With recent accounting scandals with the likes of Enron and WorldCom, investors are beginning to focus more diligence on just how the financial statements of their favourite companies are constructed. One commonly reported measure from a company's income statement that has come under abrupt scrutiny with the WorldCom scandal is that of Earnings before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA).

As its long-form title suggests, EBITDA is a company's reported profit before the non-cash charges of depreciation and amortization, and the very-much-cash charges of interest and taxes.

EBITDA first came into use in the 180's with the leveraged buyout craze, where it was used to indicate the availability of earnings to service the interest on a company's debt. More recently, EBITDA has been put to use among telecommunications, cable-TV and wireless companies, who spend enormous sums on building infrastructure, then write down those assets over a long period of time. EBITDA takes away the often-enormous depreciation and amortization charges associated with asset write-downs, and makes companies' earnings reports look better with the remnants of asset building removed.

Whether it is interest or depreciation, using EBITDA alone as a performance measure clearly leaves out a great deal of essential information that investors would be quite interested to know. In the case of WorldCom, the company exploited the EBITDA measure by improperly booking $.8 billion in 001 operating costs as capital expenditures, which are listed on the balance sheet and can be depreciated over time, thereby removing them from reported earnings and inflating the company's EBITDA.

Should EBITDA Be Discarded?

Even in the wake of the accounting shenanigans, the balance of opinion as to the continuing utility of EBITDA has not yet swayed strongly in any one direction. A recent CNN Money article reports EBITDA is particularly useful when you have companies with big capital investments, heavy up-front costs where it takes a while to get returns back, says Chuck Hill, director of research for First Call.

Offering a contrary view in a recent TheStreet.com article, The Company and its public relations and the analysts push you to look at the EBITDA and take you away from focusing on the negative issues which might be more prevalent by looking at the cash flow statement, said Richard Mole, CPA and partner at Weisberg Mole Krantz & Goldfarb.

EBITDA-based valuations and the high-capex nature of the cable business reignited concerns that cable companies could also be overcapitalizing expenses and overstating EBITDA, Merrill Lynch analyst Jessica Reif Cohen wrote in a recent research report.

We believe the accounting concerns seem overblown, she added. While there are slight variances in accounting in accounting policies among many companies in the cable industry, we believe the differences are slight. It is our understanding that cable operators all follow generally accepted accounting practices, except Adelphia.

But Reif Cohen emphasized that the cable business derives much of its revenues from subscription fees, leading to very consistent and highly predictable revenue and EBITDA results.

With mixed expert advice as to the continued use of EBITDA, the only conclusion for investors is to exercise extreme care when using the measure for their own analyses. As with any other financial measure or ratio, EBITDA should only be used in conjunction with many other fundamental indicators to develop a full picture of a company's operations and prospects. Only then can investors hope to begin protecting themselves from falling for inappropriate use of a single measure used alone.

Please note that this sample paper on EBITDA is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on EBITDA, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on EBITDA will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Ethics. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Ethics paper right on time.

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In Linda Pastans poem Ethics, the speaker recounts a moral dilemma that her teacher would ask every fall, which has been haunting her for a long time. The question was if there were a fire in a museum / which would you save, a Rembrandt painting / or an old woman who hadnt many / years left anyhow? and the speaker tells us through the theme that ethics and moral values can be only learned from the reflection which comes through experience and maturity. In this poem, imagery, diction, and figures of speech contribute to the development of the theme.

The speaker in the poem uses images to help to support the theme. For example the statement that sometimes the woman borrowed my grandmothers face displays the inability of the children to relate the dilemma to themselves, something that the speaker has learned later on with time and experience. In this poem, the speaker is an old woman, and she places a high emphasis on the burden of years from which she speaks by saying old woman, / or nearly so, myself. I know now that woman / and painting and season are almost one / and all beyond saving by children. clearly states that the poem is not written for the amusement of children but somebody that has reached the speakers age, thus supporting the idea of the theme that children cannot help or understand her or anybody of her age. In addition, when the speakers describes the kids in the classroom as restless on hard chairs and caring little for picture or old age we can picture them in our minds sitting, ready to leave the class as soon as possible, unwilling and unable to understand the ethics dilemma or what the speaker is feeling.

The choice of words of the author also contributes to the development of the theme. For example, the use of words like drafty, half-heartedly, and half-imagined give the reader the idea of how faintly the dilemma was perceived and understood by the children, thus adding to the idea that the children cannot understand the burden the speaker has upon herself. In addition, referring to a Rembrandt as just a picture and to the woman as old age, we can see that these two symbols, which are very important to the speaker and to the poem, are considered trivial by the children, thus contributing to the concept that the children cannot feel what the speaker is feeling. To add to the idea of old age of the woman, and to define the point of view more clearly, the speaker uses old woman a number of times.

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The speaker uses the metaphors The colors / within this frame are darker than autumn, / darker even than winter and the browns of earth, / though earths most radiant elements burn / through the canvas. to give us the impression that the painting is not just a simple drawing, but it is something alive, something connected to the earth which is worth saving, thus putting it at the same level of the old woman, and thus making the dilemma more balanced. In addition, the idea of a color burning through the canvas puts more emphasis on the painting being something supernatural, thus increasing its status in the poem to be as high as (and maybe even higher than) the old woman. Symbolism is also used at the end of the poem, when the speaker describes the color of the painting as dark than autumn, / darker even than winter which adds to the idea that the painting is something that represents old age and death but that is also something natural, like a season. In addition, by saying that I now know that woman / and painting and season are almost one / and all beyond saving by children the speaker implies that both the painting and the woman represent something old, wise, and decadent, and are something that ethics say we cannot and should not easily give up, but children are not able to understand that, therefore they cannot save them.

In conclusion, this poem is not just about a lesson of ethics learned in school by a student. Instead, this poem is about the life of an old woman, the view of life children have of old things and old people and of life, and true beauty and importance things of age have, either for being wise and experienced or just for being there for so long. I have to admit that I did not take this poem too seriously at first, but after examining it closely and thinking about it, I have discovered its message and learned to appreciate its deepness.

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in the birthmark, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your the birthmark paper at affordable prices ! The Birthmark

A devoted scientist, in a brief step from his laboratory pursuits, marries a beautiful woman with a single physical flaw a birthmark on her face. Aylmer thinks this is imperfect for his wife and he decide to remove it. The tale evolves around his progressive frenzy to use his scientific skills to render his bride perfect and the faith of his submissive wife that the union can survive only if he accomplishes his goal. The author tells us that Aylmer had devoted himself, however, too unreservedly to scientific studies . . . and, in the secrecy of his laboratory he prepares the potion for Georgiana which results in the disappearance of the birthmark but unfortunately, she died after she remove the birthmark.

In the story The Birthmark, the character Aylmer finds for himself that pride cost him dearly, he lost his lovely wife. Aylmer is representative of the sin pride. Hawthorne describes the character in such a way that Aylmer portrays himself as Godlike.

The character Aylmer is evil because according to Hawthorne He had devoted himself, however, too unreservedly to scientific studies ever to be weaned from them by any second passion. Is this the possible pride that leads a man to be considered evil? Yes, according to evidence in the story Hamthorne makes the character Aylmer in human by taking away his passion for his wife and having it replaced by passion for only his work. Hawthorne describes Aylmers preoccupation with perfecting his wife's beauty in the story when writing. At all the seasons which should have been their happiest, he invariably and without intending it, nay, in spite of a purpose to the contrary reverted to this one disastrous topic. Through this text the author creates a character that we may see into in order to reveal the one tracked mind. Pride is the ultimate goal for Aylmar; he intends to make a prize of his wife by trying to make her extraordinary person and alleviating any blemishes. His wife Georgiana is the innocent victim in the story because she must follow her husband's wishes. Georgiana is admired for her beauty by the public's eye and Aylmer is envied by the same. Hawthorne tells us outright that the two are not happy but what must be understood is that because Aylmer is unhappy with her birthmark, ¡§My peerless bride, it is successful! You are perfect!, ...dearest Aylmer, I am dying. , pays the ultimate price for perfection. This story basically is a description of gloom and darkness. Hawthorne wrote this story to give an insight to the evil of normal people and how it has fatal potential.

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If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Children with Learning Disabilities: Where Do They Belong?. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Children with Learning Disabilities: Where Do They Belong? paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Children with Learning Disabilities: Where Do They Belong?, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Children with Learning Disabilities: Where Do They Belong? paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! Are some cases of learning disabilities more a question of a misfit between child and school than of something wrong with the child? Should inclusion include every student? There is a plethora of research addressing these issues. Educators have an arduous task of effectively identifying learning disabilities in children and supplying the necessary resources for them to be successful and productive citizens who can effectively compete with their peers.

The question of whether cases of learning disabilities are more a question of a misfit between child and the school than of something wrong with the child, is no doubt one that needs to be answered; however, the issue of properly identifying students with learning disabilities, must be addressed first and foremost. This issue has been a rather controversial one. One in which much research has been conducted. The Hart Research/American Viewpoint Poll highlights many of our country's growing concerns about the system of identifying and serving students with disabilities. Highlights of the poll include

· 44% of parents have a struggling learner in the household

· Parents (8%) and teacher (0%) believe that adoption of the alternative system would have a positive effect on the progress of students with learning disabilities.

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· 85% of teachers who see the effects of the current system in classrooms on a daily basis prefer a newer model.

· 65% of teachers believe that many of their colleagues could use more training to help them identify students with learning disabilities.

( Hart, Peter. Parents and Teachers Say Nation's Schools Fail Kids With Learning Disabilities).

The findings of this research suggest that many students with learning disabilities are not identified in a timely manner for them to receive the services they need to compete with their peers. As a result, many children are placed in regular education classes and expected to function with normalcy, when in fact, they just can't. Once students are properly identified, what next? Should they be mainstreamed into a regular classroom setting or should they be placed in special classes with students with similar disabilities?

Should inclusion include every student? There is research that contains "differing views" on this controversial topic. Advocates of the policy of mainstreaming believe that "all children should be included in the general classroom, regardless of their disability (Council for Exceptional Children). Still, there are others like members of the American Federation of Teachers who believe that mainstreaming is not necessarily the solution. They believe that "placements should be determined by the needs and abilities of the child and that when disabled children are appropriately included in regular classes, teachers should be given adequate training and support services. (American Federation of Teachers, 16)

Before students are identified learning disabled, one must consider why they have been identified. Is it because they are behavior problems? According to Jane M. Healy, "learning disabilities, both formally diagnosed and unofficially suspected, are now blamed for a large proportion of learning casualties, from underachievers to school dropouts (Healy, p. 17). Could it be the teacher doesn't know just how to relate to the child, thus creating a misfit between the child and school? Or, could it be that there is in fact nothing wrong with the child, he/she just needs to be challenged? There have been numerous times in my career when I have noticed this to be the case. Teachers don't know how to relate to certain children, children aren't being challenged, and as a result, develop behavior problems. The teacher is quick to determine the child is either ADHD or has some other learning disability. It really saddens me when this happens. Oftentimes, these children, (in my school), are African-American boys being raised in single parent, low income housing areas.

As a single parent myself of two African-American boys, I would hate for my children to be singled out and identified learning disabled because of the color of their skin or perhaps because their teachers don't understand them. As I mentioned in a post on the Blackboard, my eldest son, in first grade, posed quite a challenge to his teacher. I constantly received phone calls about Michael's behavior. His teacher at the time was actually brazen enough to suggest perhaps he needed to be tested for ADHD. I, in turn, asked her to have him tested in reading. Reluctantly, she reported that Michael was in fact reading on a .5 grade level in the first semester of first grade. He was obviously bored and unchallenged, thus, a definite misfit between the child and the teacher.

Unfortunately, many of the parents I work with trust their teacher's judgment and do not insist that perhaps there is somewhat of a misfit between their child and the teacher or the school. These parents allow their children to be tested and identified learning disabled, thus setting them up for failure. Is inclusion then the answer for these children? According to Albert Shanker, AFT President, "the concept of inclusion is deceptive because it helps parents believe their child is being normalized. It takes away the stigma of special education, disabled, or retarded (Inclusion Can Hurt Everyone, Apr. 16). Shanker further states, "in reality, inclusion is creating a nightmare for the teachers and is harming both regular and special students (Shanker, Apr. 16). The Council for Learning Disabilities supports school reform efforts that "enhance the education of all students, including those with learning disabilities." The Council "supports the education of students with learning disabilities in regular classroom settings when deemed "appropriately by the IEP (Individual Education Program) team. However, the Council "cannot support indiscriminate full-time placement of all students with learning disabilities in the regular education classroom also known as, inclusion (Council for Learning Disabilities, 1)."

Essentially, the issue of whether some cases of learning disabilities are more a question of a misfit between child and school than of something wrong with the child is one to be researched and debated for years to come. Teachers must be trained to identify, as well as to work with children with learning disabilities. Teachers must be trained to look for other possible solutions to behavior problems, and not just assume a child with these problems is learning disabled. The bottom line is that "NO CHILD IS LEFT BEHIND" and we, as educators, must do whatever is necessary to ensure that all children receive a quality education that positions them to be successful, productive adults. Children are truly a gift from God and the Bible clearly states we are to "train up a child in the way that he should go and when he is old, he will not depart from it (Proverbs 6)." If God says it, that settles it. All children deserve the very best we have to offer, regular education students, as well as learning disabled students.

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If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on What are the principles of individual differences? Discuss various approaches of quantitative measurement?. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality What are the principles of individual differences? Discuss various approaches of quantitative measurement? paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in What are the principles of individual differences? Discuss various approaches of quantitative measurement?, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your What are the principles of individual differences? Discuss various approaches of quantitative measurement? paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! Individual Differences is an area of study in psychology that attempts to systematically investigate the variations in behaviour between individuals, seeking explanatory coherence in terms of theory based upon biological, cognitive, and social factors. Such a definition is extremely broad, but is accurate to the extent that it represents the entire spectrum of human behaviour that is available for investigation Historically, individual difference researchers have been concerned mostly with the constructs of personality and intelligence, their structure, functional mechanisms, and interactions with behaviour. In addition, psychometrics and measurement methodology run hand-in-hand with research in this area. As Brian Haig (from Canterbury University, NZ) has proposed, the identification of psychological phenomena requires measurement of the characteristics and attributes of such phenomena, both for identification purposes and the generation of statements concerning causality.

Individual Differences is a branch of psychology that studies how and why individuals differ. Its main sub-branches are the study of cognitive abilities, motivation, personality, and temperament (including both mood and emotion).

The focus of investigation in individual differences research is on the variables that form the basis for manifest differences in behavior and performance among individuals and between groups. For example, it is commonly observed that individuals differ in personality, motivation, and intellectual ability

Despite the fact that we humans have certain sameness in our behavior, we also show important individual differences. We all acquire and use language. This is a sameness that interests the evolutionary psychologist. But it is also clear that there are marked individual differences in the way we use language. Shakespeare and Goethe displaced eloquence with language that most of us lack. Evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics often treat the same phenotypes but approach them from different directions. Take intellect and cognition. Evolutionary psychologists like John Tooby and Leda Cosmides research cognitive modules such as the ability for us humans to detect cheaters. Behavioral geneticists like Thomas Bouchard ask why some people are smarter than others are. Phobias are another area of interest to both disciplines. Evolutionary psychologists wonder why we easily develop phobias of snakes but hardly ever acquire phobias of electrical outlets. Behavioral geneticists ask why Wilbur developed a phobia of heights while his brother, Waldo, never acquired that fear.

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Psychological assessment is broadly defined as the gathering and integration of scientifically acquired data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation, accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses and measurement procedures.

The two disciplines of scientific psychology are the experimental, concerned with general laws, and the correlational, concerned with individual differences. As Cronbach pointed out in a celebrated address to the American Psychological Association in 157, both are indispensable to a proper understanding of human beings and their behavior. Indeed, one cannot properly exist without the other. Individual differences interact in almost every case with experimental and situational paradigms to produce results differing profoundly for individuals of different capacities, different personalities, different emotions, and different motivations.

Personality psychology addresses the questions of shared human nature, dimensions of individual differences and unique patterns of individuals. Research in IDs ranges from analyses of genetic codes to the study of sexual, social, ethnic, and cultural differences and includes research on cognitive abilities, interpersonal styles, and emotional reactivity. Methods range from laboratory experiments to longitudinal field studies and include data reduction techniques such as Factor Analysis and Principal Components Analysis, as well as Structural Modeling and Multi-Level Modeling procedures. Measurement issues of most importance are those of reliability and stability of individual differences.

Taxonomies of individual differences

Taxonomic work has focused on categorizing the infinite ways in which individuals differ in terms of a limited number of latent or unobservable constructs. This is a multi-step, cyclical process of intuition, observation, deduction, induction, and verification that has gradually converged on a consensual descriptive organization of broad classes of variables as well as on methods for analyzing them. Most of the measurement and taxonomic techniques used throughout the field have been developed in response to the demand for selection for schooling, training, and business applications.

Personality & ability

Although to some the term personality refers to all aspects of a persons individuality, typical usage divides the field into studies of ability and personality. Tests of ability are viewed as maximal performance measures. Ability is construed as the best one can do on a particular measure in a limited time (speed test) or with unlimited time (power test). Personality measures are estimates of average performance and typically include reports of preferences and estimates of what one normally does and how one perceives oneself and is perceived by others.

The same procedures used to clarify the structure of cognitive abilities have been applied to the question of identifying the domains of personality.

Other researchers have advocated a lexical approach to the taxonomic problem, following the basic assumption that words in the natural language describe all-important individual differences. This shifts the taxonomic question from how are individuals similar and different from each other to how are the words used to describe individuals (e.g., lively, talkative, nervous, anxious) similar and different from each other.

Dimensional analyses of tests developed based on lexical, rational, or theoretical bases suggest that a limited number (between three and seven) of higher order trait domains adequately organize the thousands of words that describe individual differences and the logically infinite way that these words can be combined into self or peer report items.

A psychological test is a standardized instrument designed to measure objectively in one or more aspects of a total personality by means of samples of verbal or nonverbal responses, or by means of other behaviors. The key words are standardized, objectively& samples.

Objectively

The purpose of standardizing a test is to give it objectivity, i.e. to devise an instrument that will be free from personal judgments regarding ability, skill, knowledge, trait or potentiality to be measured. A key is provided with the test is used to score the responses; or in case of Stanford-Binet scales, the scoring criteria are specified and illustrated so that the subjective judgments of individual examiners do not enter or are reduced to a minimum. The most objective kind of scoring is that of group test, graded by hand with the stencil or an electronic machine. However, while highly objective, none of these methods are error free.

Representative population sample

Test of specific aptitude are designed for specified population. Rating scale, personality inventories, projective tests are intended for use with a specified segment of total population. They may be designed for selected group, for particular occupations, for given educational levels, for the diagnosis of clinical cases or even non-clinical population as well. In any event, whatever the traits to be measured, whatever age group specified, the test must be standardized on group that is a representative sample of the total population for which it is intended.

The nature & comprehensiveness of the test undertaken will determine what factors are important in making a population sampling. The samples should yield unbiased data on the population it purports to represent, and the sample should be large enough to provide statistically valid results of the trait or functions being measured by the test. This means, that the test designer must decide at the outset with which group, with what segment of the population, his instrument should be used. Then he must standardized the test on the population sample that is stratified according to relevant factors; and within each stratum the selection of cases should be adequate in number and of correct proportion in the total.

Sampling of traits & functions

Any given test measures a limited aspect of the person being examined. It is essential that the test builder define the aspects he proposes to measure. After this he must develop a series of test items that will best sample the traits or functions with which his test is concerned. Two types of sampling are involved in constructing a psychological test.viz. Gross variable (the broad, comprehensive trait or function) must be selected. Operational levels (i.e. the actual items)

Another approach to analysis of test content is known as construct validity This term means that a test measures what it claims to measure if the mental processes (activities) required by the test items sample as well as the concept, or constructs that the test is designed to measure.

The next task a difficult one is the preparation & experimental selection of numerous individual items to give substances to each of these categories.

Specific aptitudes

A specific aptitude test indicates the probable degree of successful learning & achievement in particular &limited type of activity. A test intended to estimate a person's capacity in any specific area must include parts (sub tests) and items, sufficient in number & extensive enough in scope & level of difficulty to provide an adequate sampling upon which a prediction of subsequent learning & achievement may be based.e.g.Wing standardized test of musical intelligence include 7 aspects chord analysis, pitch range, memory, rhythmic accent, harmony, intensity& phrasing.

Personality inventories

There are inventories, answered by the individual himself, intend to evaluate degrees of introversion-extroversion, neurotic tendencies, security-insecurity & others. In each instance, the author of the test must define the manifestations or symptoms of the trait. e.g. Bernreuter personality inventory is designed to evaluate degrees of 6 traits neurotictendency, self-sufficiency, introversion-extroversion, dominence�submission, confidence in one's self & sociability.

Projective tests

The most famous is the Rorschach test .the other is Murray Thematic Apperception Test. This test rest upon analyses of human needs and of the environmental forces (called press) affecting human behaviour. Murray lists 6 needs & 16 environmental forces to be elicited by the series of ambiguous pictures. These needs included achievement, dominance, intragression and the press included affiliation, dominance, rejection.

Personality& projective tests are the representations of actual behaviors; but are as close to actual behavior and experience as can be approached without observing a person in the behavioral situations themselves.

To understand individual differences, it is important to understand several quantitative principles

The first important concept is that of a distribution. A distribution is a mathematical function that gives the frequency of various trait values. Typically, the trait value is plotted on the horizontal axis while the frequency of that trait value is on the vertical axis. Bell shaped curve of a normal distribution, the most important distribution.. Phenotypic scores in the middle of the distribution are the most frequent. As one moves away from the middle in either direction, the frequencies of the phenotypes become smaller and smaller. Intelligence, most personality traits�indeed, most behavioral phenotypes�show a frequency distribution similar to the normal.

The mean of a distribution is the arithmetic average. It is computed by adding all the scores together and dividing by the number of observations. The mean is a measure of central tendency or location and answers the question, "Around which number do the scores tend to cluster?"

The variance of a distribution is a measure of individual differences around the mean. It is a measure of the degree to which the scores are dispersed away from the mean. A variance can range from 0 to a large positive number. A variance of 0 signifies that there is no dispersion around the mean�every score is the same and every score equals the mean.

For example, the number of eyes for normal individuals in the human species has a variance of 0. We all have two eyes; it is not the case that some humans have one eye, others have two, and yet others have three. The larger the variance, the more the scores are scattered around the mean.The scores for the solid distribution are spread out more about the mean than they are for the blue distribution. Hence, there are differences in behavior.

Distribution in this sense is technically called a probability density function in mathematical statistics.

A closely related statistic to the variance is the standard deviation.Mathematically, the standard deviation is the square root of the variance, so it too must range from 0 to a large positive number. The standard deviation has the same interpretation as the variance. It is a measure of the spread of scores around the mean, and the larger the standard deviation, the greater the individual differences.An important feature of variance is that it can be partitioned.

Variance in the phenotype can be partitioned into a portion due to genetic variance and another portion due to environmental variance. This partitioning helps geneticists to answer two important questions�to what extent are observable individual differences due to individual differences in genotype and to what extent are observable individual differences due to individual differences in the environment?

Correlation coefficients are the most common statistic used to quantify the similarity of relatives for a continuous trait. A correlation coefficient is a measure of the extent to which scores on one variable can predict scores on a second variable. Mathematically, a correlation coefficient can range from -1.0 to 1.0. There are two important attributes of a correlation coefficient.

The first is the sign of the correlation. A positive sign (i.e., a correlation between 0 and 1.0) denotes a direct relationship. This assumes that the two distributions are on the same measurement scale. Many measurement scales for behavioral traits (e.g., IQ, personality scales, etc.) are arbitrary, so the statement in the text does not apply to them. high scores on the first variable predict high scores on the second variable, and conversely low scores on the second variable predict low scores on the second variable.

E.g. The correlation between height and weight is positive.

Negative sign (i.e., a correlation coefficient less than 0) denotes an inverse relationship.In this case, high scores on one variable predict low scores on the second variable, and conversely low scores on the first variable predict high scores on the second variable. The correlation between the amount of time spent partying and grades is negative. Students who spend a very large amount of time partying tend to get lower than average grades while students who spend little time at parties tend to receive higher grades

The second important attribute of the correlation is the square of the correlation

coefficient. Because a correlation can range between -1.0 and 1.0, the square of the correlation must range between 0 and 1.0. The square of the correlation is a measure of the amount of predictability between the two variables. Statistically speaking, the correlation squared gives the proportion of variance in one variable that is predicable from the other variable. Because variance is a measure of individual differences, another way of stating the previous statement is that the correlation squared is a measure of the extent to which individual differences in one variable are predictable from individual differences in the second variable. If the correlation squared is 0, then there is no predictability the two variables are not related to each other. If the squared correlation is 1.0, then we can perfectly predict scores on one variable by knowing scores on the second variable.

The correlation is 0, and then the dots look as if a circle could enclose them. As the correlation increases, then the dots take on an elliptical appearance. As the correlation gets larger and larger, the dots become more and more elliptical. When the correlation is at its maximum of 1.0, then the dots all fall on a straight line.

E.g. Correlations very close to 0 are sometimes encountered in behavioral genetic research for distant relatives. Correlations of .5 are typical of those reported for first-degree relatives (parent-offspring and sibs) for personality traits. . Correlations near .50 are seldom encountered for first-degree relatives but are not unusual for identical twins. Correlations of .75 and above are found only for identical twins and for relatives on some traits that are strongly influence by the family environment, e.g., religious preference

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If you order your essay from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on School Security (Criminal Justice). What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality School Security (Criminal Justice) paper right on time.

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During the nineties, Americans across the country witnessed the horror of high school youth go bad. News agencies across the country reported breaking news as each incident occurred. The cities where these incidents occurred became common places of interest, due to the incidents that occurred. Places such as Columbine, Colorado; Fayetteville, Tennessee and Edinboro, Pennsylvania, will never be forgotten (Ortmeier 00). The horrible incidents that occurred involved the senseless wounding and murder of teachers, students, and faculty. Almost every incident involved a handgun, rifle, or shotgun. How these youth obtained these weapons is not the question. The question is, what measures could have been taken at the school to avoid these disasters with out nullifying the 4th amendment? Security measures and devices placed in schools provide a safe school environment that could prevent the threat of further disastrous situations.

School security and safety is a major concern in the United States. Not only is a very important concern but it is also a legal concern. Schools are like safe-havens for kids. A place to go and be themselves, to learn and to be comfortable doing so. The events that took place in the nineties almost toppled these feelings. Parents were on edge not knowing whether their child would be back home safe that day. Providing a physically and psychologically safe school, I feel should be a priority of all school administrations.

Administrators, teachers, parents and the public have a responsibility to ensure that our schools are safe and secure places for our children (Safe Schools). How do we do ensure this? Recent studies indicate, students are three times more likely to be victims of nonfatal serious violent crime away from school than at school (Safe Schools). So if this is the case, why is school safety and security a major concern? It is widely known that students suffer from student crime. Student crime consists of theft, vandalism and drug sales to name a few. With these crimes occurring in our schools it has been found that students seem less safe (Safe Schools). Moore states that in a recent study, percent of respondents report that school safety has a strong impact on academic performance. I feel this a highly important topic to promote school safety and security.

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Providing a safe and secure school that ensures a student will feel comfortable begins with access. Access to the school, I feel, is the most simple form of security. However, the type of structure can make this the most difficult challenge (Key to Security). The most important feeling to establish within the building is if the occupants feel safe. According to Garver utilizing a Facilities Security Worksheet can simplify the decision making process. Garver explains that there is six-security objectives within this thought process. They are authorized access, key control, user friendly, serviceable, audit trail and time zones (Key to Security). Discussing the first and the most basic objective, access control, can be simply achieved. Access control is probably the highest level of security. Garver explains that utilizing this objective authorizes access to a specified area only to selected individuals (Key to Security). If all accesses to the facility were controlled to only allow one major entrance, I feel would be a start for providing a safe school. Obviously, many factors need to be taken into consideration such as emergency exit access. However, todays security technologies make this a very easy task.

Controlling access as previously discussed is just a start in providing a safe and secure school. If you think about the incidents that occurred in the nineties, you will remember that they involved weapons. Once again, how could this have been prevented? Before these incidents occurred, the thought of providing security technology in our schools would never have been heard. It was often considered that doing so would make the school a prison. And the infringement of students rights was often considered. When discussing security technology for school facilities, we are discussing video cameras, metal detectors and mobile communication systems (Security Technologies).

Video cameras can provide students and teachers with a sense of safety and have been proven to be a deterrent to crime (Security Technologies). It is common knowledge that no one wants to be caught on tape. Video cameras provide hard evidence of the crime and it is very easy to prove guilt. In the article School Technologies, it recommends that cameras be placed in cafeterias, parking lots, hallways, computer rooms and areas where valuable equipment is kept.

Metal detectors are another security source of concern. Metal detectors can detect the presence of firearms, knives and weapons. There are pros and cons involved in the use of metal detectors. Building layout and experienced operators are two main factors to consider (Security Technologies). When considering the building layout the students access to the school is important. Long lines while waiting to enter the school could cause problems.

Communications systems are another source of security technology. Communications systems include phones, intercoms, call buttons and duress alarm devices (Security Technologies). Phones provide a means of summoning outside assistance such as police, fire or rescue. Call buttons are used within the classroom as a means for teachers to communicate with the administration office (Security Technologies). And duress alarms are strategically mounted buttons that notify the proper authorities that there is a problem (Security Technologies). Utilizing any or all of these communications systems not only make the school a safer environment but also summons help within minutes.

I have discussed the use of access control, security devices such as metal detectors and video cameras and the use of communications systems. These are just a few basic forms of security that can provide a safe environment for our students and faculty. I feel the most important point to keep in mind when planning school security is to think the worst. Using security assessments and lessons learned from previous incidents will prevent, if not eliminate, further disasters. School administrations cannot believe that wont happen to us. They need to take school security as an important objective in providing a safe environment and secure the thoughts of those in attendance.

Works Cited

Ortmeier, P.J.. Security Management An Introduction. New Jersey Upper Saddle River, 00.

Safe and Secure Schools. Ed. Deborah P. Moore. Oct 000 . InfoTrac. 10 Mar. 00

http//olis.sysadm.suny.edu07/itw/infomark/555/678/064105w7/purl=rc1

_ITOF_0_A671666&dyn=1!xrn_1_0_A671666?sw_aep=central.

Security Technologies Cameras, Metal Detectors, Communication Systems. Ed. School

Planning and Management. Oct 000 . InfoTrac. 10 Mar. 00

http//olis.sysadm.suny.edu07/itw/infomark/555/678/064105w7/purl=rc1

_ITOF_0_A671678&dyn=1!xrn_1_0_A671678?sw_aep=central.

Whats the Key to Your Security. Ed. Lee A. Garver. Oct 000 . InfoTrac. 10 Mar. 00

http//olis.sysadm.suny.edu07/itw/infomark/555/678/064105w7/purl=rc1

_ITOF_0_A671676&dyn=!xrn_4_0_A671676&bkm__4?sw_aep=central.

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